- _Mestizaje_ ("mixing") comes from the Spanish noun _mestizo_ ("mixed person"), which itself derives from the Latin word _mixticius_ (“mixed”). - In Spanish, the suffix _-aje_ denotes a process or result. Thus, _mestizaje_ refers to the process or phenomenon of racial and cultural mixing. ## Early Colonial Period (1492-1600) #### Significant events - 1492: **Columbus** arrives in the Americas. - 1519-1521: **Hernán Cortés**'s conquest of Aztec Empire in present-day Mexico. - 1533: **Francisco Pizzaro**'s conquest of the Inca Empire in Peru. - **Encomienda** labor system grants Spanish settlers exploitative control over Indigenous communities. - **Catholic missionaries** sought to convert and assimilate Indigenous people. ## Middle Colonial Period (1600-1700) #### Significant events - Spanish formalize the **_sistema de castas_**, or caste system. - Large mining operations brought together diverse populations, creating multicultural towns where mestizos populations grew. - **Haciendas** (plantations, mines, and/or factories) expanded, with mestizos often working as managers, reinforcing their intermediary role. ## Late Colonial Period (1700-1820) - 18th century **Bourbon reforms** imposed taxes and restrictions on both mestizos and Indigenous people, increasing tensions and dissatisfaction with Spanish rule. - The **Haitian Revolution** (1791-1804), led by Black people, resulted in first successful slave revolt in the Americas. This inspired oppressed people across Latin America. - From 1810 to 1820, inspired by the American and French revolutions, **independence movements** emerged in Mexico, Colombia, and elsewhere. Leaders often rallied mestizos as symbols of a new Latin American identity. ## Post-Independence Period (1820s-1900) - The **Mexican War of Independence** (1810-1821) was led by mestizos, celebrating mestizo as a distinct Mexican identity. - **_Caudillos_**, or strongmen leaders, (e.g. Antonio López de Santa Anna) rallied around mestizo identity and Indigenous symbolism. - **Porfirio Díaz**’s regime in Mexico (1876–1911) encouraged economic modernization while celebrating Indigenous symbols as part of the mestizo identity. - Díaz’s policies also exploited Indigenous and mestizo laborers, showing the contradictions in the mestizo narrative. ## 20th Century: Nationalization of Mestizaje (1900-1980s) - The **Mexican Revolution** (1910-1920) led to a redefinition of Mexican identity, embracing mestizaje as symbol of equality and pride. - Mexican philosopher and politician **José Vasconcelos**' book _La Raza Cósmica_ advocates for **mestizaje as a "cosmic race"** that combines the best of all races. His ideas spread across LatAm. - The **_indigenismo_ movement** sought to valorize Indigenous heritage within a mestizo identity. ## Late 20th Century: Critiques of Mestizaje (1980s-2000) - Indigenous groups began organizing to demand rights and cultural recognition, challenging the homogenization of mestizaje. - **Afro-Latino** communities mobilized against the erasure of Black identity within mestizo national narratives. - The 1994 **Zapatista uprising**, led by Indigenous people, highlighted Indigenous marginalization, sparking global awareness. ## 21st Century: Reclaiming and Diversifying Mestizo Identity (2000-Present) - Countries like Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia have formally recognized Indigenous and Afro-Latino as distinct identities, challenging mestizo dominance. - From 2006 to 2019, **Evo Morales** served as **Bolivia's first Indigenous president**. - The 2020 Mexican census allowed people to **self-identify as Afro-Mexican**, challenging mestizo homogeneity.