### Introduction Also referred to as: “*Discourse on the Origin and Basis of Inequality Among Men*”, “*Second Discourse*”, “*Origins of Inequality*” In *Origins of Inequality* (1754), Rousseau distinguishes between what he calls “natural” (age, strength, intelligence, etc.) and “political” inequality. Rousseau argues that humans in a “state of nature” were equal and free and political inequality arose with the advent of property, society, and civilization. Far from being necessary to the establishment of justice, Rousseau argues, the state and its laws “gave new fetters to the weak and new power to the rich; irretrievably destroyed natural liberty, fixed forever the laws of property and inequality; changed an artful usurpation into an irrevocable right; and for the benefit of a few ambitious individuals subjected the rest of mankind to perpetual labor, servitude, and misery.” ### Brief Biography on Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-78) was a philosopher of the French Enlightenment who was influential both on Kant’s development of his ethical theory and on the French and American Revolutions. ### Rousseau’s Major Works and Themes As a thinker, Rousseau’s major works touch on inequality and freedom. Some include: “The Social Contract” (on governance), “Émile, or on Education” (on child-centered education), “Confessions” (autobiography offering insights into society & norms). The common thread through Rousseau’s work is the tension between the individual and society. He focused on getting back to a more “natural”, uncorrupted state. Overall, major themes in his work include: * **State of Nature:** He was enamored with the idea of humans living in a pre-civilization state where humans lived freely. * **Social Contract:** How communities formed and how individuals yield some freedoms for collective benefit, ideally through direct democracy. * **Inequality:** An artificial construct of civilization. * **Education:** Experiential and child-centered. * **Emotion and Morality:** Unlike other Enlightenment thinkers, Rousseau placed high value on emotion, intuition, & morals. * **Freedom**: Rousseau often dealt with the theme of individual freedom versus societal constraints. ### Rousseau’s Personal Life In his personal life, Rousseau had numerous love affairs and abandoned his five children. He fell out with many of his friends, including Diderot and Voltaire. He worked various jobs from secretary, to tutor, to music teacher. He also relied on financial support from various patrons and made some wealth from his writings but was never rich. ### Criticisms of Rousseau - **Idealized state of nature:** Rousseau’s conception of man in a state of nature is overly romanticized. - **Social Contract & Direct Democracy:** His vision of governance is considered logistically impossible in large, complex societies and would require an unreasonably politically involved and educated citizenry. - **General will:** Can lead to the tyranny of the majority. - **Emphasis on emotion over reason:** This has been criticized for paving the way for the excesses of Romanticism. | ⚠️ On “Noble Savage” | |--------------------------------------------------------------| | **Rousseau neither coined nor used the term "noble savage".** <br>It’s often incorrectly attributed to him because it resonates with his work. The term is attributed to a 1672 play and gained traction in the 18th-century Enlightenment. |