# Part 1: Evidence-based Education and the Science of Learning ## Ch. 1 Communication breakdown between science and practice in education - Professor of Psychology Henry L. Roediger reported in 2013 that educational practice does not, for the most part, rely on research findings. - This book advocates that teaching and learning strategies be put to rigorous testing. - This book focuses on evidence from **cognitive science**, our area of expertise. - Cognitive science: the study of the mind, including processes such as perception, attention, and memory. - Very few teacher education courses cover principles of cognitive psychology related to learning. - Many teacher-training textbooks and courses propagate misunderstandings about learning. - One study found that in 48 teacher-training textbooks, only 15% dedicated just 1 page or more towards the six most effective learning strategies. (p. 7) - Teachers may feel researchers are out of touch regarding classroom realities and have a top-down approach, rather than two-way dialogue. - The main reason we are writing this book: open up lines of communication between researchers, teachers, and students. ## Ch. 2 Different types of evidence in education - This book relies on empirical data. In particular, quantitative data that typically includes students' performance on various quizzes and assessments. - Cognitive scientists use experimental manipulations (randomized controlled trials) to find causal relationships. - At least one control group, one experimental group, and one manipulated variable. - Experiments can also be conducted in a "within-subjects" design, where each participant is serving as their own control. - Experimental studies can be contrasted with correlational studies, where one variable can be used to predict another variable. (Does not imply causation!) - Experimental studies more directly point to cause and effect and so are preferred. - Cognitive science focuses on the mind; neuroscience focuses on the brain. - The Lab-to-Classroom Model - Basic lab level: participants perform simplified tasks (e.g. learning word lists) - Applied lab level: focus shifts to studying realistic, educationally relevant materials (e.g. textbook chapters, lectures) - Classroom level: strategies are tested in real-world school environments with realistic materials. Teachers often assist in implementation and evaluation. ## Ch. 3 Is intuition the enemy of teaching and learning? - People have faulty intuitions about what makes for effective learning; unfortunately they're notoriously difficult to correct. - People tend to rely on their intuition when deciding how to learn effectively. This is because nearly everyone has attended school and feels that has granted them some expertise. - Faulty intuitions are compounded by confirmation bias: people tend to look for information that confirms their intuitions. - When learning is difficult, learners tend to predict poorer performance. However, the opposite tends to be true, **effortful learning is correlated with greater performance.** - One study had two study groups: 1) a repeated-reading group 2) a reading + retrieval group. The repeated-reading group _predicted_ their performance at 0.65 but their _actual_ performance was 0.4. Meanwhile, the reading + retrieval group _predicted_ performance at 0.4 but had an _actual_ performance of 0.6. (p. 25) - Learners tend to rely on re-reading because it's easy compared to something else like retrieval practice. - One study found 55% of students relied on repeated reading as their top study strategy. ## Ch. 4 Pervasive misunderstanding about learning: How they arise, and What we can do - "Neuromyths" are pervasive and notoriously difficult to dispel; this tends to happen when information about learning is taken out of context and condensed into over-generalizations. | % who believe | Neuromyth | | ------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | 93% | Individuals learn better according to their learning style (auditory, kinesthetic, etc.) | | 89% | Environments rich in stimuli improve brains of pre-school children | | 76% | Short coordination exercises can improve left/right brain integration | | 74% | Exercises that rehearse coordination of motor-perception skills can improve literacy skills | | 74% | Left/right brain dominance can explain differences among learners | | 61% | It has been scientifically proven that omega-3 and omega-6 supplements have positive effect on academic achievement | | 60% | Emotional brain processes interrupt brain processes involved with reasoning | | 49% | We only use 10% of or brain | | 48% | Memory is stored in the brain like a computer | | 47% | Children are less attentive after consuming sugar | # Part 2: Basics of Human Cognitive Processes ## Ch. 5 Perception - Sensation is the raw signal received by your sense organs. Perception is the _interpretation_ of these signals. - Bottom-up processing begins and ends with the stimulus. You focus on information and try to understand it without bringing your own prior knowledge to the situation. - Newborn babies engage mostly in bottom-up processing. If they hear a fire alarm, they may be startled, but they are not thinking about what the fire alarm means. - Top-down processing brings your prior knowledge to bear on your interpretation of the input you are receiving. - Top-down processing can result in different interpretations of information and teaching strategies. - **Rote memorization is bottom-up**, while **understanding is top-down**. Both are essential for learning. - Both memorization and understanding are necessary. **Memorize to scaffold understanding; use understanding to reinforce memory.** - Memorization provides foundational knowledge that supports deeper thinking. - Understanding allows for flexible application and transfer for knowledge. - Without a solid memory of fundamental facts, understanding can be superficial. - For example, understanding more advanced math concepts like calculus relies on automatic recall of basic arithmetic and algebra. ## Ch. 6 Attention - Attention is poorly understood in a scientific sense; however, it is often defined as a limited-capacity resource to direct the mind toward a specific task. - Multi-tasking is a myth. If someone performs multiple tasks, they will pay a switching cost and perform worse than if they individually concentrated on each task. - **Cognitive Load Theory**: our working memory has limited capacity, and learning is optimized when cognitive load is managed effectively. - Intrinsic load: the inherent complexity of the material. - Reduce extraneous load— information that unnecessarily taxes working memory. - Germane load: the effort used for constructing schemas and understanding (the productive part of learning). - **Increased Saliency Theory** of attention suggests that stimuli that stand out are more likely to capture and sustain attention. - Saliency comes from many sources: student's own motivation, how information is presented, or even bottom-up features such as bright colors. - Best practices: highlight core concepts (e.g. bold, color contrast), avoid excessive saliency to avoid distraction or overload. - Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation are different than individual interest and situational interest. - **Intrinsic motivation** describes drive for learning for its own sake, instead of by punishment or reward. - **Individual interest**: personal interest in the topic. - **Situational interest**: interest triggered by the learning environment or context. - Extrinsic motivation can be helpful for dull tasks, but can reduce intrinsic motivation if it already exists. - Situational interest has not been found to undermine inherent interest. On the contrary, it can maintain or strengthen inherent interest. - Mind-wandering involves getting distracted from a task by your own thoughts. - People mind-wander when the task is either too easy or too difficult. - Short-term memory processing decides what's worth keeping after a 15-30 second window. - **Working memory** is a cognitive system that temporarily holds and manipulates information; it's often described as a mental workspace with limited capacity. (Can only hold ~4-7 items at once, making chunking and organizing crucial.) - Phonological Loop (Verbal Working Memory): allows you to rehearse and refresh verbal information (e.g. repeating a phone number). - Visuospatial Sketchpad (Visual Working Memory): used for mental imagery, navigation, or remembering layout of a room. - Central Executive: The control center that allocates attention and resources to tasks. Coordinates information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad. Integrates information with long-term memory. - Three theories have attempted to account for individual differences in attention. There is no scientific consensus on which theory best explains how attention impacts academic achievement. - Working Memory Theory of attention states that the amount of "attentional resources" we have is dependent on how much information we can hold and manipulate at any one time. Studies have shown correlations between working memory and academic performance. - Processing Speed Theory describes our attentional resources in terms of how quickly we can process information— the quicker we can process things, the better we can perform tasks that require us to process multiple pieces of information. This is also correlated with academic achievement. - Attentional Control Theory puts the onus on our ability to focus on whatever we choose in any given moment. Those who have better attentional control are able to more effectively select what to focus on and maintain focus. - **It's important to accept that attention-related traits vary by individuals and are largely innate.** Therefore, learners should focus on strategies that work within their capabilities. ## Ch. 7 Memory - **Memory is not like a library or computer; memory is _reconstructive_.** - Reconstructive memory: we don't lay down objective, definitive memory traces that are later retrieved verbatim. **Every time you retrieve a memory, you are actually changing it.** - Every time you retrieve a memory, you reconstruct it, activate it, and may alter it. - **Memory is not objective.** - False memories are quite common. - We tend to remember things in ways that fit our schema. - Details from your imagination can become part of your memories. - Short-term memory is in the 15-30 second range. - Patients who present with total memory loss are still able to keep things in memory for 15-30 seconds, indicating it is a different memory system. - **Declarative memory** is memory of facts and events that are _consciously recalled._ - Brain areas: hippocampus and medial temporal lobe. - **Procedural memory** is memory of skills and habits, often _performed unconsciously_ after learning. (e.g., Riding a bike, tying your shoes) - Brain areas: basal ganglia and cerebellum. - Four key stages for long-term memory and how to make them effective: 1. **Encoding:** transforming memory into a format that can be stored in memory. - Focus and making information meaningful; use active learning strategies. 2. **Consolidation:** stabilization and strengthening of encoded memories over time. - Regular review and adequate sleep, especially deep sleep and REM. 3. **Storage:** maintaining information in long-term memory for future use. - Durability improves with repeated use and integration with existing knowledge. 4. **Retrieval:** accessing stored information when needed. - Practice retrieval, like quizzing, to improve long-term use. - Memory is stored as networks of neurons connected by synapses. - Active patterns of neurons form engrams, representing concepts, episodes, or skills. - Engrams are connected through pathways and associations, creating links between memories. - Learning activates specific patterns of neurons, some new and some based on prior knowledge. - To remember, the brain must reactivate similar patterns to those formed during learning. - After learning, neuronal connections are strengthened to create lasting engrams. - Sleep and rest are critical for consolidation. - Established prior knowledge (schemas) make new memory consolidation easier and faster. - Retrieving a memory makes its engrams malleable, allowing reconsolidation (modification or strengthening). - Each retrieval attempt reconstructs and refines memory pathways and associations. - Key principal: **Neurons that fire together, wire together.** Learning relies on the active formation and reactivation of engrams and their connections. Effortful retrieval and integration are crucial for long-term retention. # Part 3: Strategies for Effective Learning ## Ch. 8 Planning Learning: Spaced repetition and interleaving ## Ch. 9 Development of understanding ## Ch. 10 Reinforcement Learning # Part 4: Tips for Teachers, Students, and Parents ## Ch. 11 Tips for Teachers ## Ch. 12 Tips for Students ## Ch. 3 Tips for parents