##### 1800–1900: Romantic era - An artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. For most of the Western world, it was at its peak from approximately 1800 to 1850. Romanticism was characterized by its emphasis on emotion and individualism as well as glorification of the past and nature, preferring the medieval over the classical. ##### 1837–1901: The Victorian Era - The Victorian era is named after Queen Victoria, and spans the years of her reign. The period was the heart of the Industrial Revolution and saw the British Empire expand to become the largest ever empire. ##### Mid 19th century through early 20th century: First-wave feminism - Period of feminist activity throughout the Western world. - Focused on legal issues, primarily on securing women's right to vote. - Often criticized for focusing exclusively on white, middle-class women. ##### 1848 - **Seneca Falls Convention**: first women's rights convention. Discussed "the social, civil and religions condition and rights of woman." - Traditionally considered the start of first-wave feminism. - The _**Communist Manifesto_** published by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. ##### 1859 - Charles Darwin publishes *On the Origin of Species*. ##### 1861-1865: US Civil War ##### 1865–1877: US Reconstruction ##### 1865 - **13th amendment** ratified: Slavery abolished in the United States. ##### 1868 - **14th amendment** ratified: citizenship rights and equal protection under the law. - Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized (incl. former slaves) in the US. ##### 1870 - **15th amendment** ratified: right to vote protected by race. ##### 1960s-1980s: Second-Wave Feminism - Broadened scope of first-wave, focusing on sexuality, gender roles, reproductive rights, financial independence, workplace equality, and domestic violence. - "The personal is political", "consciousness raising" - Criticized for essentialist views of gender and lack of intersectionality, still being led primarily by white, middle-class women, especially in its early years. ##### 1963  - **_The Feminine Mystique_** published by Betty Friedan. Argued that women were chafing against the confines of their roles as wives and mothers. ##### 1976 - **Michel Foucault** publishes **_The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction_**. - Foucault's **post-structuralist** analysis argues that we are always bounds up in cultural and historical relations, and there is no pure "free self" that is being imposed upon. - In "We 'Other Victorians'", challenges the "**repressive hypothesis**," arguing it simplifies the complex relationship between power, knowledge, and sexual practices. Rather, there was a proliferation of discourses surrounding sexuality, playing a central role in the exercise of power. ##### 1989 - **Kimberlé Crenshaw** introduced concept of **intersectionality** in essay _Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A black Feminist Critique of Anti-discrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics_. ##### 1990 - **Judith Butler** publishes **Gender Trouble**, introducing their groundbreaking thesis on gender performativity. - Gender performativity articulates that gender is not a fixed, natural, or inherent identity, but rather an ongoing performance that is enacted through repetitive behaviors, gestures, and acts. This analysis opens possibilities beyond the gender binary. ##### Early 1990s to Late 2000s: Third-Wave Feminism - Third-wave feminism emphasized diversity, intersectionality, challenging the definitions and assumptions of second-wave feminism. It sought to embrace contradictions and multiple identities, focusing on queer rights, gender construction, and deconstructing the notion of universal womanhood. - The beginning is generally marked by the Anita Hill Senate hearings of 1991, where Hill testified that then US Supreme Court nominee Clarence Thomas had sexually harassed her. - Third-wave feminism is sometimes critiques as being fragmented and lacking a unified goal or direction, as well as emphasizing individualism at the expense of systemic change. ##### Early 2000s to present (2024): Fourth-Wave Feminism - The fourth-wave is relatively difficult to define, some argue it's simply a continuation of the third. - Characterized by the use of social media as a tool for mobilization and dissemination. - Fourth-wave feminism focuses on combating sexual harassment, assault, and misogyny, as well as issues of body shaming, workplace discrimination, and the representation of women in media. Intersectionality and diversity remain key components. - Fourth-wave feminism is critiques for "slacktivism," where online support fails to translate into real-word action and systemic change.